President Theodore Roosevelt oversaw the realization of a long-term United States goal —
a trans-isthmian canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, reshaping global commerce
and cementing American power on the world stage.
1914
Canal Completed
51 mi
Length of Canal
$10M
One-time Payment to Panama
$250K
Annual Annuity to Panama
10 mi
Wide Canal Zone
A Century in the Making
The Road to the Panama Canal
Throughout the 1800s, American and British leaders and businessmen wanted to ship goods
quickly and cheaply between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. In 1850 the United States
and Great Britain negotiated the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty to rein in rivalry over a proposed
canal through the Central American Republic of Nicaragua. The Anglo-American canal,
however, never went beyond the planning stages.
French attempts to build a canal through Panama — then a province of Colombia — advanced
further. Led by Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal in Egypt, the French
began excavating in 1880. Malaria, yellow fever, and other tropical diseases conspired
against the campaign, and after nine years and a loss of approximately 20,000 lives,
the French attempt went bankrupt.
The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 abrogated the earlier Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and
licensed the United States to build and manage its own canal. Following heated debate
over whether to route the canal through Nicaragua or Panama, on June 19, 1902,
the U.S. Senate voted in favor of Panama.
"I took the Isthmus, started the canal, and then left Congress — not to debate the canal,
but to debate me. But while the debate goes on, the canal does also."
— Theodore Roosevelt, 1911
Secretary of State John Hay signed a treaty with Colombian Foreign Minister Tomás Herrán
to build the canal, but the financial terms were unacceptable to Colombia's congress and
it rejected the offer. Roosevelt responded by dispatching U.S. warships to Panama City
and Colón in support of Panamanian independence. Colombian troops were unable to negotiate
the jungles of the Darien Strait, and Panama declared independence on November 3, 1903.
The newly declared Republic of Panama named Philippe Bunau-Varilla — a French engineer
involved in the earlier de Lesseps attempt — as its envoy. He negotiated the
Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903, providing the United States with a 10-mile wide strip
of land for the canal, a one-time $10 million payment to Panama, and an annual annuity
of $250,000. The United States also guaranteed Panama's independence.
Completed in 1914, the Panama Canal symbolized U.S. technological prowess and economic
power. Roosevelt personally visited the construction site in 1906 — the first sitting
U.S. president to travel outside the country while in office — and was famously
photographed at the controls of a massive Bucyrus steam shovel.
Roosevelt at Culebra Cut, 1906
The president at the controls of a Bucyrus steam shovel during his November 1906
visit — the first sitting U.S. president to leave the country while in office.
Underwood & Underwood · Library of Congress · No known restrictions · LC-DIG-stereo-1s02353
"Roosevelt's Rough Diggers" — Puck, 1906
TR depicted in his Rough Rider uniform leading canal laborers armed with shovels.
The figure in the background labeled "Jake" likely refers to chief engineer John F. Stevens.
Keppler & Schwarzmann · Puck Magazine, Nov. 14, 1906 · Library of Congress · No known restrictions · LC-DIG-ppmsca-26113
How It Happened
Canal Timeline
1850
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
The U.S. and Great Britain agree to jointly control any future canal through
Central America, preventing either nation from acting alone.
1880–1889
French Attempt Fails
Ferdinand de Lesseps begins excavation through Panama. Yellow fever and malaria
kill approximately 20,000 workers. The project goes bankrupt after nine years.
1901
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty
The U.S. and Britain supersede the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. The United States
is now free to build and control its own canal without British involvement.
June 19, 1902
Senate Votes for Panama Route
After heated debate over Nicaragua vs. Panama, the U.S. Senate votes to build
the canal through Panama. The Spooner Act authorizes the project.
1903
Colombia Rejects the Herrán Treaty
Colombia's congress refuses the financial terms negotiated by Secretary Hay.
Roosevelt, furious, dispatches U.S. warships to support Panamanian independence.
November 3, 1903
Panama Declares Independence
With U.S. naval support blocking Colombian troops, Panama declares independence.
The U.S. recognizes the new republic within days.
November 18, 1903
Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty Signed
Panama grants the U.S. a 10-mile canal zone in perpetuity. The U.S. pays
$10 million up front and $250,000 annually, and guarantees Panamanian independence.
1904–1914
Construction
The Army Corps of Engineers leads one of the greatest engineering feats in
history. Chief Engineer John Stevens and later Colonel George Goethals oversee
the project. Dr. William Gorgas eliminates yellow fever from the Canal Zone.
August 15, 1914
Canal Opens
The SS Ancon becomes the first vessel to officially transit the completed
Panama Canal, linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans for commerce and navies worldwide.
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty — U.S. gains exclusive canal rights
1903
Hay-Herrán Treaty — rejected by Colombia
1903
Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty — canal zone granted to U.S.
1977
Torrijos-Carter Treaties — U.S. agrees to return canal to Panama by 1999
Engineering the Impossible
The canal required excavating over 200 million cubic yards of earth and rock —
three times the amount dug by the French. The Culebra Cut alone required blasting
through nine miles of the Continental Divide.
Dr. William Gorgas's mosquito eradication program eliminated yellow fever from
the Canal Zone entirely — a feat that had defeated the French and was considered
impossible at the time.
The Gatun Locks — the largest man-made structure in the world at the time of
their construction — raise ships 85 feet above sea level to cross the Isthmus.
